Python Documentation contents

What’s New in Python What’s New In Python 3.1 PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator Other Language Changes New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules Optimizations IDLE Build and C API Changes Porting to Python 3.1 What’s New In Python 3.0 Common Stumbling Blocks Print Is A Function Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists Ordering Comparisons Integers Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit Overview Of Syntax Changes New Syntax Changed Syntax Removed Syntax Changes Already Present In Python 2.6 Library Changes PEP 3101: A New Approach To String Formatting Changes To Exceptions Miscellaneous Other Changes Operators And Special Methods Builtins Build and C API Changes Performance Porting To Python 3.0 What’s New in Python 2.7 Python 3.1 PEP 372: Adding an ordered dictionary to collections Other Language Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules importlib: Importing Modules ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes: Windows Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X Other Changes and Fixes Porting to Python 2.7 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.6 Python 3.0 Changes to the Development Process New Issue Tracker: Roundup New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement Writing Context Managers The contextlib module PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting PEP 3105: print As a Function PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes PEP 3112: Byte Literals PEP 3116: New I/O Library PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax PEP 3129: Class Decorators PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers The fractions Module Other Language Changes Optimizations Interpreter Changes New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules The ast module The future_builtins module The json module: JavaScript Object Notation The plistlib module: A Property-List Parser ctypes Enhancements Improved SSL Support Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes: Windows Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X Port-Specific Changes: IRIX Porting to Python 2.6 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.5 PEP 308: Conditional Expressions PEP 309: Partial Function Application PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1 PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally PEP 342: New Generator Features PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement Writing Context Managers The contextlib module PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type PEP 357: The ‘index’ method Other Language Changes Interactive Interpreter Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Removed Modules The ctypes package The ElementTree package The hashlib package The sqlite3 package The wsgiref package Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Porting to Python 2.5 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.4 PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers PEP 289: Generator Expressions PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods PEP 322: Reverse Iteration PEP 324: New subprocess Module PEP 327: Decimal Data Type Why is Decimal needed? The Decimal type The Context type PEP 328: Multi-line Imports PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions Other Language Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules cookielib doctest Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Porting to Python 2.4 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.3 PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype PEP 255: Simple Generators PEP 263: Source Code Encodings PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT PEP 278: Universal Newline Support PEP 279: enumerate() PEP 282: The logging Package PEP 285: A Boolean Type PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils PEP 302: New Import Hooks PEP 305: Comma-separated Files PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements Extended Slices Other Language Changes String Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules Date/Time Type The optparse Module Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Other Changes and Fixes Porting to Python 2.3 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.2 Introduction PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes Old and New Classes Descriptors Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule Attribute Access Related Links PEP 234: Iterators PEP 255: Simple Generators PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator Unicode Changes PEP 227: Nested Scopes New and Improved Modules Interpreter Changes and Fixes Other Changes and Fixes Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.1 Introduction PEP 227: Nested Scopes PEP 236: future Directives PEP 207: Rich Comparisons PEP 230: Warning Framework PEP 229: New Build System PEP 205: Weak References PEP 232: Function Attributes PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook PEP 208: New Coercion Model PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages New and Improved Modules Other Changes and Fixes Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.0 Introduction What About Python 1.6? New Development Process Unicode List Comprehensions Augmented Assignment String Methods Garbage Collection of Cycles Other Core Changes Minor Language Changes Changes to Built-in Functions Porting to 2.0 Extending/Embedding Changes Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install XML Modules SAX2 Support DOM Support Relationship to PyXML Module changes New modules IDLE Improvements Deleted and Deprecated Modules Acknowledgements The Python Tutorial 1. Whetting Your Appetite 2. Using the Python Interpreter 2.1. Invoking the Interpreter 2.1.1. Argument Passing 2.1.2. Interactive Mode 2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment 2.2.1. Error Handling 2.2.2. Executable Python Scripts 2.2.3. Source Code Encoding 2.2.4. The Interactive Startup File 3. An Informal Introduction to Python 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator 3.1.1. Numbers 3.1.2. Strings 3.1.3. About Unicode 3.1.4. Lists 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming 4. More Control Flow Tools 4.1. if Statements 4.2. for Statements 4.3. The range() Function 4.4. break and continue Statements, and else Clauses on Loops 4.5. pass Statements 4.6. Defining Functions 4.7. More on Defining Functions 4.7.1. Default Argument Values 4.7.2. Keyword Arguments 4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists 4.7.4. Unpacking Argument Lists 4.7.5. Lambda Forms 4.7.6. Documentation Strings 4.8. Intermezzo: Coding Style 5. Data Structures 5.1. More on Lists 5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks 5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues 5.1.3. List Comprehensions 5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions 5.2. The del statement 5.3. Tuples and Sequences 5.4. Sets 5.5. Dictionaries 5.6. Looping Techniques 5.7. More on Conditions 5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types 6. Modules 6.1. More on Modules 6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts 6.1.2. The Module Search Path 6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files 6.2. Standard Modules 6.3. The dir() Function 6.4. Packages 6.4.1. Importing * From a Package 6.4.2. Intra-package References 6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories 7. Input and Output 7.1. Fancier Output Formatting 7.1.1. Old string formatting 7.2. Reading and Writing Files 7.2.1. Methods of File Objects 7.2.2. The pickle Module 8. Errors and Exceptions 8.1. Syntax Errors 8.2. Exceptions 8.3. Handling Exceptions 8.4. Raising Exceptions 8.5. User-defined Exceptions 8.6. Defining Clean-up Actions 8.7. Predefined Clean-up Actions 9. Classes 9.1. A Word About Names and Objects 9.2. Python Scopes and Name Spaces 9.2.1. Scopes and Namespaces Example 9.3. A First Look at Classes 9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax 9.3.2. Class Objects 9.3.3. Instance Objects 9.3.4. Method Objects 9.4. Random Remarks 9.5. Inheritance 9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance 9.6. Private Variables 9.7. Odds and Ends 9.8. Exceptions Are Classes Too 9.9. Iterators 9.10. Generators 9.11. Generator Expressions 10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library 10.1. Operating System Interface 10.2. File Wildcards 10.3. Command Line Arguments 10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination 10.5. String Pattern Matching 10.6. Mathematics 10.7. Internet Access 10.8. Dates and Times 10.9. Data Compression 10.10. Performance Measurement 10.11. Quality Control 10.12. Batteries Included 11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library – Part II 11.1. Output Formatting 11.2. Templating 11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts 11.4. Multi-threading 11.5. Logging 11.6. Weak References 11.7. Tools for Working with Lists 11.8. Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic 12. What Now? 13. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution 13.1. Line Editing 13.2. History Substitution 13.3. Key Bindings 13.4. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter 14. Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations 14.1. Representation Error Using Python 1. Command line and environment 1.1. Command line 1.1.1. Interface options 1.1.2. Generic options 1.1.3. Miscellaneous options 1.2. Environment variables 1.2.1. Debug-mode variables 2. Using Python on Unix platforms 2.1. Getting and installing the latest version of Python 2.1.1. On Linux 2.1.2. On FreeBSD and OpenBSD 2.1.3. On OpenSolaris 2.2. Building Python 2.3. Python-related paths and files 2.4. Miscellaneous 2.5. Editors 3. Using Python on Windows 3.1. Installing Python 3.2. Alternative bundles 3.3. Configuring Python 3.3.1. Excursus: Setting environment variables 3.3.2. Finding the Python executable 3.3.3. Finding modules 3.3.4. Executing scripts 3.4. Additional modules 3.4.1. PyWin32 3.4.2. Py2exe 3.4.3. WConio 3.5. Compiling Python on Windows 3.6. Other resources 4. Using Python on a Macintosh 4.1. Getting and Installing MacPython 4.1.1. How to run a Python script 4.1.2. Running scripts with a GUI 4.1.3. Configuration 4.2. The IDE 4.3. Installing Additional Python Packages 4.4. GUI Programming on the Mac 4.5. Distributing Python Applications on the Mac 4.6. Application Scripting 4.7. Other Resources The Python Language Reference 1. Introduction 1.1. Alternate Implementations 1.2. Notation 2. Lexical analysis 2.1. Line structure 2.1.1. Logical lines 2.1.2. Physical lines 2.1.3. Comments 2.1.4. Encoding declarations 2.1.5. Explicit line joining 2.1.6. Implicit line joining 2.1.7. Blank lines 2.1.8. Indentation 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens 2.2. Other tokens 2.3. Identifiers and keywords 2.3.1. Keywords 2.3.2. Reserved classes of identifiers 2.4. Literals 2.4.1. String and Bytes literals 2.4.2. String literal concatenation 2.4.3. Numeric literals 2.4.4. Integer literals 2.4.5. Floating point literals 2.4.6. Imaginary literals 2.5. Operators 2.6. Delimiters 3. Data model 3.1. Objects, values and types 3.2. The standard type hierarchy 3.3. Special method names 3.3.1. Basic customization 3.3.2. Customizing attribute access 3.3.2.1. Implementing Descriptors 3.3.2.2. Invoking Descriptors 3.3.2.3. slots 3.3.2.3.1. Notes on using slots 3.3.3. Customizing class creation 3.3.4. Emulating callable objects 3.3.5. Emulating container types 3.3.6. Emulating numeric types 3.3.7. With Statement Context Managers 3.3.8. Special method lookup 4. Execution model 4.1. Naming and binding 4.1.1. Interaction with dynamic features 4.2. Exceptions 5. Expressions 5.1. Arithmetic conversions 5.2. Atoms 5.2.1. Identifiers (Names) 5.2.2. Literals 5.2.3. Parenthesized forms 5.2.4. Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries 5.2.5. List displays 5.2.6. Set displays 5.2.7. Dictionary displays 5.2.8. Generator expressions 5.2.9. Yield expressions 5.3. Primaries 5.3.1. Attribute references 5.3.2. Subscriptions 5.3.3. Slicings 5.3.4. Calls 5.4. The power operator 5.5. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations 5.6. Binary arithmetic operations 5.7. Shifting operations 5.8. Binary bitwise operations 5.9. Comparisons 5.10. Boolean operations 5.11. Lambdas 5.12. Expression lists 5.13. Evaluation order 5.14. Summary 6. Simple statements 6.1. Expression statements 6.2. Assignment statements 6.2.1. Augmented assignment statements 6.3. The assert statement 6.4. The pass statement 6.5. The del statement 6.6. The return statement 6.7. The yield statement 6.8. The raise statement 6.9. The break statement 6.10. The continue statement 6.11. The import statement 6.11.1. Future statements 6.12. The global statement 6.13. The nonlocal statement 7. Compound statements 7.1. The if statement 7.2. The while statement 7.3. The for statement 7.4. The try statement 7.5. The with statement 7.6. Function definitions 7.7. Class definitions 8. Top-level components 8.1. Complete Python programs 8.2. File input 8.3. Interactive input 8.4. Expression input 9. Full Grammar specification The Python Standard Library 1. Introduction 2. Built-in Functions 3. Built-in Constants 3.1. Constants added by the site module 4. Built-in Objects 5. Built-in Types 5.1. Truth Value Testing 5.2. Boolean Operations — and, or, not 5.3. Comparisons 5.4. Numeric Types — int, float, complex 5.4.1. Bit-string Operations on Integer Types 5.4.2. Additional Methods on Integer Types 5.4.3. Additional Methods on Float 5.5. Iterator Types 5.5.1. Generator Types 5.6. Sequence Types — str, bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, range 5.6.1. String Methods 5.6.2. Old String Formatting Operations 5.6.3. Range Type 5.6.4. Mutable Sequence Types 5.6.5. Bytes and Byte Array Methods 5.7. Set Types — set, frozenset 5.8. Mapping Types — dict 5.8.1. Dictionary view objects 5.9. File Objects 5.10. memoryview Types 5.11. Context Manager Types 5.12. Other Built-in Types 5.12.1. Modules 5.12.2. Classes and Class Instances 5.12.3. Functions 5.12.4. Methods 5.12.5. Code Objects 5.12.6. Type Objects 5.12.7. The Null Object 5.12.8. The Ellipsis Object 5.12.9. Boolean Values 5.12.10. Internal Objects 5.13. Special Attributes 6. Built-in Exceptions 6.1. Exception hierarchy 7. String Services 7.1. string — Common string operations 7.1.1. String constants 7.1.2. String Formatting 7.1.3. Format String Syntax 7.1.3.1. Format Specification Mini-Language 7.1.4. Template strings 7.1.5. Helper functions 7.2. re — Regular expression operations 7.2.1. Regular Expression Syntax 7.2.2. Matching vs Searching 7.2.3. Module Contents 7.2.4. Regular Expression Objects 7.2.5. Match Objects 7.2.6. Examples 7.2.6.1. Checking For a Pair 7.2.6.2. Simulating scanf() 7.2.6.3. Avoiding recursion 7.2.6.4. search() vs. match() 7.2.6.5. Making a Phonebook 7.2.6.6. Text Munging 7.2.6.7. Finding all Adverbs 7.2.6.8. Finding all Adverbs and their Positions 7.2.6.9. Raw String Notation 7.3. struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data 7.3.1. Struct Objects 7.4. difflib — Helpers for computing deltas 7.4.1. SequenceMatcher Objects 7.4.2. SequenceMatcher Examples 7.4.3. Differ Objects 7.4.4. Differ Example 7.4.5. A command-line interface to difflib 7.5. textwrap — Text wrapping and filling 7.6. codecs — Codec registry and base classes 7.6.1. Codec Base Classes 7.6.1.1. Codec Objects 7.6.1.2. IncrementalEncoder Objects 7.6.1.3. IncrementalDecoder Objects 7.6.1.4. StreamWriter Objects 7.6.1.5. StreamReader Objects 7.6.1.6. StreamReaderWriter Objects 7.6.1.7. StreamRecoder Objects 7.6.2. Encodings and Unicode 7.6.3. Standard Encodings 7.6.4. encodings.idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications 7.6.5. encodings.utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature 7.7. unicodedata — Unicode Database 7.8. stringprep — Internet String Preparation 8. Data Types 8.1. datetime — Basic date and time types 8.1.1. Available Types 8.1.2. timedelta Objects 8.1.3. date Objects 8.1.4. datetime Objects 8.1.5. time Objects 8.1.6. tzinfo Objects 8.1.7. strftime() Behavior 8.2. calendar — General calendar-related functions 8.3. collections — Container datatypes 8.3.1. ABCs - abstract base classes 8.3.2. Counter objects 8.3.3. deque objects 8.3.3.1. deque Recipes 8.3.4. defaultdict objects 8.3.4.1. defaultdict Examples 8.3.5. namedtuple() Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields 8.3.6. OrderedDict objects 8.3.7. UserDict objects 8.3.8. UserList objects 8.3.9. UserString objects 8.4. heapq — Heap queue algorithm 8.4.1. Theory 8.5. bisect — Array bisection algorithm 8.5.1. Examples 8.6. array — Efficient arrays of numeric values 8.7. sched — Event scheduler 8.7.1. Scheduler Objects 8.8. queue — A synchronized queue class 8.8.1. Queue Objects 8.9. weakref — Weak references 8.9.1. Weak Reference Objects 8.9.2. Example 8.10. types — Names for built-in types 8.11. copy — Shallow and deep copy operations 8.12. pprint — Data pretty printer 8.12.1. PrettyPrinter Objects 8.12.2. pprint Example 8.13. reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation 8.13.1. Repr Objects 8.13.2. Subclassing Repr Objects 9. Numeric and Mathematical Modules 9.1. numbers — Numeric abstract base classes 9.1.1. The numeric tower 9.1.2. Notes for type implementors 9.1.2.1. Adding More Numeric ABCs 9.1.2.2. Implementing the arithmetic operations 9.2. math — Mathematical functions 9.2.1. Number-theoretic and representation functions 9.2.2. Power and logarithmic functions 9.2.3. Trigonometric functions 9.2.4. Angular conversion 9.2.5. Hyperbolic functions 9.2.6. Constants 9.3. cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers 9.3.1. Conversions to and from polar coordinates 9.3.2. Power and logarithmic functions 9.3.3. Trigonometric functions 9.3.4. Hyperbolic functions 9.3.5. Classification functions 9.3.6. Constants 9.4. decimal — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic 9.4.1. Quick-start Tutorial 9.4.2. Decimal objects 9.4.2.1. Logical operands 9.4.3. Context objects 9.4.4. Signals 9.4.5. Floating Point Notes 9.4.5.1. Mitigating round-off error with increased precision 9.4.5.2. Special values 9.4.6. Working with threads 9.4.7. Recipes 9.4.8. Decimal FAQ 9.5. fractions — Rational numbers 9.6. random — Generate pseudo-random numbers 9.7. itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping 9.7.1. Itertool functions 9.7.2. Recipes 9.8. functools — Higher order functions and operations on callable objects 9.8.1. partial Objects 9.9. operator — Standard operators as functions 9.9.1. Mapping Operators to Functions 10. File and Directory Access 10.1. os.path — Common pathname manipulations 10.2. fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams 10.3. stat — Interpreting stat() results 10.4. filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons 10.4.1. The dircmp class 10.5. tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories 10.6. glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion 10.7. fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching 10.8. linecache — Random access to text lines 10.9. shutil — High-level file operations 10.9.1. Example 10.10. macpath — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions 11. Data Persistence 11.1. pickle — Python object serialization 11.1.1. Relationship to other Python modules 11.1.2. Data stream format 11.1.3. Module Interface 11.1.4. What can be pickled and unpickled? 11.1.5. Pickling Class Instances 11.1.5.1. Persistence of External Objects 11.1.5.2. Handling Stateful Objects 11.1.6. Restricting Globals 11.1.7. Examples 11.2. copyreg — Register pickle support functions 11.3. shelve — Python object persistence 11.3.1. Restrictions 11.3.2. Example 11.4. marshal — Internal Python object serialization 11.5. dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases” 11.5.1. dbm.gnu — GNU’s reinterpretation of dbm 11.5.2. dbm.ndbm — Interface based on ndbm 11.5.3. dbm.dumb — Portable DBM implementation 11.6. sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases 11.6.1. Module functions and constants 11.6.2. Connection Objects 11.6.3. Cursor Objects 11.6.4. Row Objects 11.6.5. SQLite and Python types 11.6.5.1. Introduction 11.6.5.2. Using adapters to store additional Python types in SQLite databases 11.6.5.2.1. Letting your object adapt itself 11.6.5.2.2. Registering an adapter callable 11.6.5.3. Converting SQLite values to custom Python types 11.6.5.4. Default adapters and converters 11.6.6. Controlling Transactions 11.6.7. Using sqlite3 efficiently 11.6.7.1. Using shortcut methods 11.6.7.2. Accessing columns by name instead of by index 11.6.7.3. Using the connection as a context manager 12. Data Compression and Archiving 12.1. zlib — Compression compatible with gzip 12.2. gzip — Support for gzip files 12.2.1. Examples of usage 12.3. bz2 — Compression compatible with bzip2 12.3.1. (De)compression of files 12.3.2. Sequential (de)compression 12.3.3. One-shot (de)compression 12.4. zipfile — Work with ZIP archives 12.4.1. ZipFile Objects 12.4.2. PyZipFile Objects 12.4.3. ZipInfo Objects 12.5. tarfile — Read and write tar archive files 12.5.1. TarFile Objects 12.5.2. TarInfo Objects 12.5.3. Examples 12.5.4. Supported tar formats 12.5.5. Unicode issues 13. File Formats 13.1. csv — CSV File Reading and Writing 13.1.1. Module Contents 13.1.2. Dialects and Formatting Parameters 13.1.3. Reader Objects 13.1.4. Writer Objects 13.1.5. Examples 13.2. configparser — Configuration file parser 13.2.1. RawConfigParser Objects 13.2.2. ConfigParser Objects 13.2.3. SafeConfigParser Objects 13.2.4. Examples 13.3. netrc — netrc file processing 13.3.1. netrc Objects 13.4. xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data 13.4.1. Packer Objects 13.4.2. Unpacker Objects 13.4.3. Exceptions 13.5. plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files 13.5.1. Examples 14. Cryptographic Services 14.1. hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests 14.2. hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication 15. Generic Operating System Services 15.1. os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces 15.1.1. File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables 15.1.2. Process Parameters 15.1.3. File Object Creation 15.1.4. File Descriptor Operations 15.1.5. Files and Directories 15.1.6. Process Management 15.1.7. Miscellaneous System Information 15.1.8. Miscellaneous Functions 15.2. io — Core tools for working with streams 15.2.1. Module Interface 15.2.2. I/O Base Classes 15.2.3. Raw File I/O 15.2.4. Buffered Streams 15.2.5. Text I/O 15.3. time — Time access and conversions 15.4. optparse — More powerful command line option parser 15.4.1. Background 15.4.1.1. Terminology 15.4.1.2. What are options for? 15.4.1.3. What are positional arguments for? 15.4.2. Tutorial 15.4.2.1. Understanding option actions 15.4.2.2. The store action 15.4.2.3. Handling boolean (flag) options 15.4.2.4. Other actions 15.4.2.5. Default values 15.4.2.6. Generating help 15.4.2.7. Printing a version string 15.4.2.8. How optparse handles errors 15.4.2.9. Putting it all together 15.4.3. Reference Guide 15.4.3.1. Creating the parser 15.4.3.2. Populating the parser 15.4.3.3. Defining options 15.4.3.4. Standard option actions 15.4.3.5. Option attributes 15.4.3.6. Standard option types 15.4.3.7. Parsing arguments 15.4.3.8. Querying and manipulating your option parser 15.4.3.9. Conflicts between options 15.4.3.10. Cleanup 15.4.3.11. Other methods 15.4.4. Option Callbacks 15.4.4.1. Defining a callback option 15.4.4.2. How callbacks are called 15.4.4.3. Raising errors in a callback 15.4.4.4. Callback example 1: trivial callback 15.4.4.5. Callback example 2: check option order 15.4.4.6. Callback example 3: check option order (generalized) 15.4.4.7. Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition 15.4.4.8. Callback example 5: fixed arguments 15.4.4.9. Callback example 6: variable arguments 15.4.5. Extending optparse 15.4.5.1. Adding new types 15.4.5.2. Adding new actions 15.5. getopt — Parser for command line options 15.6. logging — Logging facility for Python 15.6.1. Logging tutorial 15.6.1.1. Simple examples 15.6.1.2. Loggers 15.6.1.3. Handlers 15.6.1.4. Formatters 15.6.1.5. Configuring Logging 15.6.1.6. Configuring Logging for a Library 15.6.2. Logging Levels 15.6.3. Useful Handlers 15.6.4. Module-Level Functions 15.6.5. Logger Objects 15.6.6. Basic example 15.6.7. Logging to multiple destinations 15.6.8. Adding contextual information to your logging output 15.6.9. Sending and receiving logging events across a network 15.6.10. Handler Objects 15.6.10.1. StreamHandler 15.6.10.2. FileHandler 15.6.10.3. NullHandler 15.6.10.4. WatchedFileHandler 15.6.10.5. RotatingFileHandler 15.6.10.6. TimedRotatingFileHandler 15.6.10.7. SocketHandler 15.6.10.8. DatagramHandler 15.6.10.9. SysLogHandler 15.6.10.10. NTEventLogHandler 15.6.10.11. SMTPHandler 15.6.10.12. MemoryHandler 15.6.10.13. HTTPHandler 15.6.11. Formatter Objects 15.6.12. Filter Objects 15.6.13. LogRecord Objects 15.6.14. LoggerAdapter Objects 15.6.15. Thread Safety 15.6.16. Configuration 15.6.16.1. Configuration functions 15.6.16.2. Configuration file format 15.6.16.3. Configuration server example 15.6.17. More examples 15.6.17.1. Multiple handlers and formatters 15.6.17.2. Using logging in multiple modules 15.7. getpass — Portable password input 15.8. curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays 15.8.1. Functions 15.8.2. Window Objects 15.8.3. Constants 15.9. curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs 15.9.1. Textbox objects 15.10. curses.wrapper — Terminal handler for curses programs 15.11. curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters 15.12. curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses 15.12.1. Functions 15.12.2. Panel Objects 15.13. platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data 15.13.1. Cross Platform 15.13.2. Java Platform 15.13.3. Windows Platform 15.13.3.1. Win95/98 specific 15.13.4. Mac OS Platform 15.13.5. Unix Platforms 15.14. errno — Standard errno system symbols 15.15. ctypes — A foreign function library for Python 15.15.1. ctypes tutorial 15.15.1.1. Loading dynamic link libraries 15.15.1.2. Accessing functions from loaded dlls 15.15.1.3. Calling functions 15.15.1.4. Fundamental data types 15.15.1.5. Calling functions, continued 15.15.1.6. Calling functions with your own custom data types 15.15.1.7. Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes) 15.15.1.8. Return types 15.15.1.9. Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference) 15.15.1.10. Structures and unions 15.15.1.11. Structure/union alignment and byte order 15.15.1.12. Bit fields in structures and unions 15.15.1.13. Arrays 15.15.1.14. Pointers 15.15.1.15. Type conversions 15.15.1.16. Incomplete Types 15.15.1.17. Callback functions 15.15.1.18. Accessing values exported from dlls 15.15.1.19. Surprises 15.15.1.20. Variable-sized data types 15.15.2. ctypes reference 15.15.2.1. Finding shared libraries 15.15.2.2. Loading shared libraries 15.15.2.3. Foreign functions 15.15.2.4. Function prototypes 15.15.2.5. Utility functions 15.15.2.6. Data types 15.15.2.7. Fundamental data types 15.15.2.8. Structured data types 15.15.2.9. Arrays and pointers 16. Optional Operating System Services 16.1. select — Waiting for I/O completion 16.1.1. Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects 16.1.2. Polling Objects 16.1.3. Kqueue Objects 16.1.4. Kevent Objects 16.2. threading — Higher-level threading interface 16.2.1. Thread Objects 16.2.2. Lock Objects 16.2.3. RLock Objects 16.2.4. Condition Objects 16.2.5. Semaphore Objects 16.2.5.1. Semaphore Example 16.2.6. Event Objects 16.2.7. Timer Objects 16.2.8. Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement 16.2.9. Importing in threaded code 16.3. dummy_threading — Drop-in replacement for the threading module 16.4. _thread — Low-level threading API 16.5. _dummy_thread — Drop-in replacement for the _thread module 16.6. multiprocessing — Process-based “threading” interface 16.6.1. Introduction 16.6.1.1. The Process class 16.6.1.2. Exchanging objects between processes 16.6.1.3. Synchronization between processes 16.6.1.4. Sharing state between processes 16.6.1.5. Using a pool of workers 16.6.2. Reference 16.6.2.1. Process and exceptions 16.6.2.2. Pipes and Queues 16.6.2.3. Miscellaneous 16.6.2.4. Connection Objects 16.6.2.5. Synchronization primitives 16.6.2.6. Shared ctypes Objects 16.6.2.6.1. The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module 16.6.2.7. Managers 16.6.2.7.1. Namespace objects 16.6.2.7.2. Customized managers 16.6.2.7.3. Using a remote manager 16.6.2.8. Proxy Objects 16.6.2.8.1. Cleanup 16.6.2.9. Process Pools 16.6.2.10. Listeners and Clients 16.6.2.10.1. Address Formats 16.6.2.11. Authentication keys 16.6.2.12. Logging 16.6.2.13. The multiprocessing.dummy module 16.6.3. Programming guidelines 16.6.3.1. All platforms 16.6.3.2. Windows 16.6.4. Examples 16.7. mmap — Memory-mapped file support 16.8. readline — GNU readline interface 16.8.1. Example 16.9. rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline 16.9.1. Completer Objects 17. Interprocess Communication and Networking 17.1. subprocess — Subprocess management 17.1.1. Using the subprocess Module 17.1.1.1. Convenience Functions 17.1.1.2. Exceptions 17.1.1.3. Security 17.1.2. Popen Objects 17.1.3. Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module 17.1.3.1. Replacing /bin/sh shell backquote 17.1.3.2. Replacing shell pipeline 17.1.3.3. Replacing os.system() 17.1.3.4. Replacing the os.spawn family 17.1.3.5. Replacing os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3() 17.1.3.6. Replacing functions from the popen2 module 17.2. socket — Low-level networking interface 17.2.1. Socket Objects 17.2.2. Example 17.3. ssl — SSL wrapper for socket objects 17.3.1. Functions, Constants, and Exceptions 17.3.2. SSLSocket Objects 17.3.3. Certificates 17.3.4. Examples 17.3.4.1. Testing for SSL support 17.3.4.2. Client-side operation 17.3.4.3. Server-side operation 17.4. signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events 17.4.1. Example 17.5. asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler 17.5.1. asyncore Example basic HTTP client 17.6. asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler 17.6.1. asynchat - Auxiliary Classes and Functions 17.6.2. asynchat Example 18. Internet Data Handling 18.1. email — An email and MIME handling package 18.1.1. email: Representing an email message 18.1.2. email: Parsing email messages 18.1.2.1. FeedParser API 18.1.2.2. Parser class API 18.1.2.3. Additional notes 18.1.3. email: Generating MIME documents 18.1.4. email: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch 18.1.5. email: Internationalized headers 18.1.6. email: Representing character sets 18.1.7. email: Encoders 18.1.8. email: Exception and Defect classes 18.1.9. email: Miscellaneous utilities 18.1.10. email: Iterators 18.1.11. email: Examples 18.1.12. Package History 18.1.13. Differences from mimelib 18.2. json — JSON encoder and decoder 18.2.1. Basic Usage 18.2.2. Encoders and decoders 18.3. mailcap — Mailcap file handling 18.4. mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats 18.4.1. Mailbox objects 18.4.1.1. Maildir 18.4.1.2. mbox 18.4.1.3. MH 18.4.1.4. Babyl 18.4.1.5. MMDF 18.4.2. Message objects 18.4.2.1. MaildirMessage 18.4.2.2. mboxMessage 18.4.2.3. MHMessage 18.4.2.4. BabylMessage 18.4.2.5. MMDFMessage 18.4.3. Exceptions 18.4.4. Examples 18.5. mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types 18.5.1. MimeTypes Objects 18.6. base64 — RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings 18.7. binhex — Encode and decode binhex4 files 18.7.1. Notes 18.8. binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII 18.9. quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data 18.10. uu — Encode and decode uuencode files 19. Structured Markup Processing Tools 19.1. html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser 19.1.1. Example HTML Parser Application 19.2. html.entities — Definitions of HTML general entities 19.3. xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat 19.3.1. XMLParser Objects 19.3.2. ExpatError Exceptions 19.3.3. Example 19.3.4. Content Model Descriptions 19.3.5. Expat error constants 19.4. xml.dom — The Document Object Model API 19.4.1. Module Contents 19.4.2. Objects in the DOM 19.4.2.1. DOMImplementation Objects 19.4.2.2. Node Objects 19.4.2.3. NodeList Objects 19.4.2.4. DocumentType Objects 19.4.2.5. Document Objects 19.4.2.6. Element Objects 19.4.2.7. Attr Objects 19.4.2.8. NamedNodeMap Objects 19.4.2.9. Comment Objects 19.4.2.10. Text and CDATASection Objects 19.4.2.11. ProcessingInstruction Objects 19.4.2.12. Exceptions 19.4.3. Conformance 19.4.3.1. Type Mapping 19.4.3.2. Accessor Methods 19.5. xml.dom.minidom — Lightweight DOM implementation 19.5.1. DOM Objects 19.5.2. DOM Example 19.5.3. minidom and the DOM standard 19.6. xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees 19.6.1. DOMEventStream Objects 19.7. xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers 19.7.1. SAXException Objects 19.8. xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers 19.8.1. ContentHandler Objects 19.8.2. DTDHandler Objects 19.8.3. EntityResolver Objects 19.8.4. ErrorHandler Objects 19.9. xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities 19.10. xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers 19.10.1. XMLReader Objects 19.10.2. IncrementalParser Objects 19.10.3. Locator Objects 19.10.4. InputSource Objects 19.10.5. The Attributes Interface 19.10.6. The AttributesNS Interface 19.11. xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API 19.11.1. Functions 19.11.2. The Element Interface 19.11.3. ElementTree Objects 19.11.4. QName Objects 19.11.5. TreeBuilder Objects 19.11.6. XMLTreeBuilder Objects 20. Internet Protocols and Support 20.1. webbrowser — Convenient Web-browser controller 20.1.1. Browser Controller Objects 20.2. cgi — Common Gateway Interface support 20.2.1. Introduction 20.2.2. Using the cgi module 20.2.3. Higher Level Interface 20.2.4. Functions 20.2.5. Caring about security 20.2.6. Installing your CGI script on a Unix system 20.2.7. Testing your CGI script 20.2.8. Debugging CGI scripts 20.2.9. Common problems and solutions 20.3. cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts 20.4. wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation 20.4.1. wsgiref.util – WSGI environment utilities 20.4.2. wsgiref.headers – WSGI response header tools 20.4.3. wsgiref.simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server 20.4.4. wsgiref.validate — WSGI conformance checker 20.4.5. wsgiref.handlers – server/gateway base classes 20.4.6. Examples 20.5. urllib.request — extensible library for opening URLs 20.5.1. Request Objects 20.5.2. OpenerDirector Objects 20.5.3. BaseHandler Objects 20.5.4. HTTPRedirectHandler Objects 20.5.5. HTTPCookieProcessor Objects 20.5.6. ProxyHandler Objects 20.5.7. HTTPPasswordMgr Objects 20.5.8. AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects 20.5.9. HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects 20.5.10. ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects 20.5.11. AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects 20.5.12. HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects 20.5.13. ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects 20.5.14. HTTPHandler Objects 20.5.15. HTTPSHandler Objects 20.5.16. FileHandler Objects 20.5.17. FTPHandler Objects 20.5.18. CacheFTPHandler Objects 20.5.19. UnknownHandler Objects 20.5.20. HTTPErrorProcessor Objects 20.5.21. Examples 20.5.22. urllib.request Restrictions 20.6. urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib. 20.7. urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components 20.7.1. Results of urlparse() and urlsplit() 20.8. urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request 20.9. urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt 20.10. http.client — HTTP protocol client 20.10.1. HTTPConnection Objects 20.10.2. HTTPResponse Objects 20.10.3. Examples 20.10.4. HTTPMessage Objects 20.11. ftplib — FTP protocol client 20.11.1. FTP Objects 20.12. poplib — POP3 protocol client 20.12.1. POP3 Objects 20.12.2. POP3 Example 20.13. imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client 20.13.1. IMAP4 Objects 20.13.2. IMAP4 Example 20.14. nntplib — NNTP protocol client 20.14.1. NNTP Objects 20.15. smtplib — SMTP protocol client 20.15.1. SMTP Objects 20.15.2. SMTP Example 20.16. smtpd — SMTP Server 20.16.1. SMTPServer Objects 20.16.2. DebuggingServer Objects 20.16.3. PureProxy Objects 20.16.4. MailmanProxy Objects 20.17. telnetlib — Telnet client 20.17.1. Telnet Objects 20.17.2. Telnet Example 20.18. uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122 20.18.1. Example 20.19. socketserver — A framework for network servers 20.19.1. Server Creation Notes 20.19.2. Server Objects 20.19.3. RequestHandler Objects 20.19.4. Examples 20.19.4.1. socketserver.TCPServer Example 20.19.4.2. socketserver.UDPServer Example 20.19.4.3. Asynchronous Mixins 20.20. http.server — HTTP servers 20.21. http.cookies — HTTP state management 20.21.1. Cookie Objects 20.21.2. Morsel Objects 20.21.3. Example 20.22. http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients 20.22.1. CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects 20.22.2. FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers 20.22.3. CookiePolicy Objects 20.22.4. DefaultCookiePolicy Objects 20.22.5. Cookie Objects 20.22.6. Examples 20.23. xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access 20.23.1. ServerProxy Objects 20.23.2. DateTime Objects 20.23.3. Binary Objects 20.23.4. Fault Objects 20.23.5. ProtocolError Objects 20.23.6. MultiCall Objects 20.23.7. Convenience Functions 20.23.8. Example of Client Usage 20.23.9. Example of Client and Server Usage 20.24. xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers 20.24.1. SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects 20.24.1.1. SimpleXMLRPCServer Example 20.24.2. CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 20.24.3. Documenting XMLRPC server 20.24.4. DocXMLRPCServer Objects 20.24.5. DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 21. Multimedia Services 21.1. audioop — Manipulate raw audio data 21.2. aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files 21.3. sunau — Read and write Sun AU files 21.3.1. AU_read Objects 21.3.2. AU_write Objects 21.4. wave — Read and write WAV files 21.4.1. Wave_read Objects 21.4.2. Wave_write Objects 21.5. chunk — Read IFF chunked data 21.6. colorsys — Conversions between color systems 21.7. imghdr — Determine the type of an image 21.8. sndhdr — Determine type of sound file 21.9. ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices 21.9.1. Audio Device Objects 21.9.2. Mixer Device Objects 22. Internationalization 22.1. gettext — Multilingual internationalization services 22.1.1. GNU gettext API 22.1.2. Class-based API 22.1.2.1. The NullTranslations class 22.1.2.2. The GNUTranslations class 22.1.2.3. Solaris message catalog support 22.1.2.4. The Catalog constructor 22.1.3. Internationalizing your programs and modules 22.1.3.1. Localizing your module 22.1.3.2. Localizing your application 22.1.3.3. Changing languages on the fly 22.1.3.4. Deferred translations 22.1.4. Acknowledgements 22.2. locale — Internationalization services 22.2.1. Background, details, hints, tips and caveats 22.2.2. For extension writers and programs that embed Python 22.2.3. Access to message catalogs 23. Program Frameworks 23.1. cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters 23.1.1. Cmd Objects 23.2. shlex — Simple lexical analysis 23.2.1. shlex Objects 23.2.2. Parsing Rules 24. Graphical User Interfaces with Tk 24.1. tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk 24.1.1. Tkinter Modules 24.1.2. Tkinter Life Preserver 24.1.2.1. How To Use This Section 24.1.2.2. A Simple Hello World Program 24.1.3. A (Very) Quick Look at Tcl/Tk 24.1.4. Mapping Basic Tk into Tkinter 24.1.5. How Tk and Tkinter are Related 24.1.6. Handy Reference 24.1.6.1. Setting Options 24.1.6.2. The Packer 24.1.6.3. Packer Options 24.1.6.4. Coupling Widget Variables 24.1.6.5. The Window Manager 24.1.6.6. Tk Option Data Types 24.1.6.7. Bindings and Events 24.1.6.8. The index Parameter 24.1.6.9. Images 24.2. tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets 24.2.1. Using Ttk 24.2.2. Ttk Widgets 24.2.3. Widget 24.2.3.1. Standard Options 24.2.3.2. Scrollable Widget Options 24.2.3.3. Label Options 24.2.3.4. Compatibility Options 24.2.3.5. Widget States 24.2.3.6. ttk.Widget 24.2.4. Combobox 24.2.4.1. Options 24.2.4.2. Virtual events 24.2.4.3. ttk.Combobox 24.2.5. Notebook 24.2.5.1. Options 24.2.5.2. Tab Options 24.2.5.3. Tab Identifiers 24.2.5.4. Virtual Events 24.2.5.5. ttk.Notebook 24.2.6. Progressbar 24.2.6.1. Options 24.2.6.2. ttk.Progressbar 24.2.7. Separator 24.2.7.1. Options 24.2.8. Sizegrip 24.2.8.1. Platform-specific notes 24.2.8.2. Bugs 24.2.9. Treeview 24.2.9.1. Options 24.2.9.2. Item Options 24.2.9.3. Tag Options 24.2.9.4. Column Identifiers 24.2.9.5. Virtual Events 24.2.9.6. ttk.Treeview 24.2.10. Ttk Styling 24.2.10.1. Layouts 24.3. tkinter.tix — Extension widgets for Tk 24.3.1. Using Tix 24.3.2. Tix Widgets 24.3.2.1. Basic Widgets 24.3.2.2. File Selectors 24.3.2.3. Hierarchical ListBox 24.3.2.4. Tabular ListBox 24.3.2.5. Manager Widgets 24.3.2.6. Image Types 24.3.2.7. Miscellaneous Widgets 24.3.2.8. Form Geometry Manager 24.3.3. Tix Commands 24.4. tkinter.scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget 24.5. turtle — Turtle graphics for Tk 24.5.1. Introduction 24.5.2. Overview over available Turtle and Screen methods 24.5.2.1. Turtle methods 24.5.2.2. Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen 24.5.3. Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions 24.5.3.1. Turtle motion 24.5.3.2. Tell Turtle’s state 24.5.3.3. Settings for measurement 24.5.3.4. Pen control 24.5.3.4.1. Drawing state 24.5.3.4.2. Color control 24.5.3.4.3. Filling 24.5.3.4.4. More drawing control 24.5.3.5. Turtle state 24.5.3.5.1. Visibility 24.5.3.5.2. Appearance 24.5.3.6. Using events 24.5.3.7. Special Turtle methods 24.5.3.8. Excursus about the use of compound shapes 24.5.4. Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions 24.5.4.1. Window control 24.5.4.2. Animation control 24.5.4.3. Using screen events 24.5.4.4. Input methods 24.5.4.5. Settings and special methods 24.5.4.6. Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen 24.5.5. The public classes of the module turtle 24.5.6. Help and configuration 24.5.6.1. How to use help 24.5.6.2. Translation of docstrings into different languages 24.5.6.3. How to configure Screen and Turtles 24.5.7. Demo scripts 24.5.8. Changes since Python 2.6 24.5.9. Changes since Python 3.0 24.6. IDLE 24.6.1. Menus 24.6.1.1. File menu 24.6.1.2. Edit menu 24.6.1.3. Windows menu 24.6.1.4. Debug menu (in the Python Shell window only) 24.6.2. Basic editing and navigation 24.6.2.1. Automatic indentation 24.6.2.2. Python Shell window 24.6.3. Syntax colors 24.6.4. Startup 24.6.4.1. Command line usage 24.7. Other Graphical User Interface Packages 25. Development Tools 25.1. pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system 25.2. doctest — Test interactive Python examples 25.2.1. Simple Usage: Checking Examples in Docstrings 25.2.2. Simple Usage: Checking Examples in a Text File 25.2.3. How It Works 25.2.3.1. Which Docstrings Are Examined? 25.2.3.2. How are Docstring Examples Recognized? 25.2.3.3. What’s the Execution Context? 25.2.3.4. What About Exceptions? 25.2.3.5. Option Flags and Directives 25.2.3.6. Warnings 25.2.4. Basic API 25.2.5. Unittest API 25.2.6. Advanced API 25.2.6.1. DocTest Objects 25.2.6.2. Example Objects 25.2.6.3. DocTestFinder objects 25.2.6.4. DocTestParser objects 25.2.6.5. DocTestRunner objects 25.2.6.6. OutputChecker objects 25.2.7. Debugging 25.2.8. Soapbox 25.3. unittest — Unit testing framework 25.3.1. Basic example 25.3.2. Organizing test code 25.3.3. Re-using old test code 25.3.4. Skipping tests and expected failures 25.3.5. Classes and functions 25.3.5.1. Test cases 25.3.5.2. Grouping tests 25.3.5.3. Loading and running tests 25.4. 2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation 25.4.1. Using 2to3 25.4.2. Fixers 25.4.3. lib2to3 - 2to3’s library 25.5. test — Regression tests package for Python 25.5.1. Writing Unit Tests for the test package 25.5.2. Running tests using test.regrtest 25.6. test.support — Utility functions for tests 26. Debugging and Profiling 26.1. bdb — Debugger framework 26.2. pdb — The Python Debugger 26.3. Debugger Commands 26.4. The Python Profilers 26.4.1. Introduction to the profilers 26.4.2. Instant User’s Manual 26.4.3. What Is Deterministic Profiling? 26.4.4. Reference Manual – profile and cProfile 26.4.4.1. The Stats Class 26.4.5. Limitations 26.4.6. Calibration 26.4.7. Extensions — Deriving Better Profilers 26.5. timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets 26.5.1. Command Line Interface 26.5.2. Examples 26.6. trace — Trace or track Python statement execution 26.6.1. Command Line Usage 26.6.2. Programming Interface 27. Python Runtime Services 27.1. sys — System-specific parameters and functions 27.2. builtins — Built-in objects 27.3. main — Top-level script environment 27.4. warnings — Warning control 27.4.1. Warning Categories 27.4.2. The Warnings Filter 27.4.3. Temporarily Suppressing Warnings 27.4.4. Testing Warnings 27.4.5. Available Functions 27.4.6. Available Context Managers 27.5. contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts 27.6. abc — Abstract Base Classes 27.7. atexit — Exit handlers 27.7.1. atexit Example 27.8. traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback 27.8.1. Traceback Examples 27.9. future — Future statement definitions 27.10. gc — Garbage Collector interface 27.11. inspect — Inspect live objects 27.11.1. Types and members 27.11.2. Retrieving source code 27.11.3. Classes and functions 27.11.4. The interpreter stack 27.12. site — Site-specific configuration hook 27.13. fpectl — Floating point exception control 27.13.1. Example 27.13.2. Limitations and other considerations 28. Custom Python Interpreters 28.1. code — Interpreter base classes 28.1.1. Interactive Interpreter Objects 28.1.2. Interactive Console Objects 28.2. codeop — Compile Python code 29. Importing Modules 29.1. imp — Access the import internals 29.1.1. Examples 29.2. zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives 29.2.1. zipimporter Objects 29.2.2. Examples 29.3. pkgutil — Package extension utility 29.4. modulefinder — Find modules used by a script 29.4.1. Example usage of ModuleFinder 29.5. runpy — Locating and executing Python modules 29.6. importlib – An implementation of import 29.6.1. Introduction 29.6.2. Functions 29.6.3. importlib.abc – Abstract base classes related to import 29.6.4. importlib.machinery – Importers and path hooks 29.6.5. importlib.util – Utility code for importers 29.6.6. Example 30. Python Language Services 30.1. parser — Access Python parse trees 30.1.1. Creating ST Objects 30.1.2. Converting ST Objects 30.1.3. Queries on ST Objects 30.1.4. Exceptions and Error Handling 30.1.5. ST Objects 30.1.6. Examples 30.1.6.1. Emulation of compile() 30.1.6.2. Information Discovery 30.2. Abstract Syntax Trees 30.2.1. Node classes 30.2.2. Abstract Grammar 30.2.3. ast Helpers 30.3. symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables 30.3.1. Generating Symbol Tables 30.3.2. Examining Symbol Tables 30.4. symbol — Constants used with Python parse trees 30.5. token — Constants used with Python parse trees 30.6. keyword — Testing for Python keywords 30.7. tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source 30.8. tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation 30.9. pyclbr — Python class browser support 30.9.1. Class Objects 30.9.2. Function Objects 30.10. py_compile — Compile Python source files 30.11. compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries 30.12. dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode 30.12.1. Python Bytecode Instructions 30.13. pickletools — Tools for pickle developers 30.14. distutils — Building and installing Python modules 31. Miscellaneous Services 31.1. formatter — Generic output formatting 31.1.1. The Formatter Interface 31.1.2. Formatter Implementations 31.1.3. The Writer Interface 31.1.4. Writer Implementations 32. MS Windows Specific Services 32.1. msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files 32.1.1. Database Objects 32.1.2. View Objects 32.1.3. Summary Information Objects 32.1.4. Record Objects 32.1.5. Errors 32.1.6. CAB Objects 32.1.7. Directory Objects 32.1.8. Features 32.1.9. GUI classes 32.1.10. Precomputed tables 32.2. msvcrt – Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime 32.2.1. File Operations 32.2.2. Console I/O 32.2.3. Other Functions 32.3. winreg – Windows registry access 32.3.1. Registry Handle Objects 32.4. winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows 33. Unix Specific Services 33.1. posix — The most common POSIX system calls 33.1.1. Large File Support 33.1.2. Notable Module Contents 33.2. pwd — The password database 33.3. spwd — The shadow password database 33.4. grp — The group database 33.5. crypt — Function to check Unix passwords 33.6. termios — POSIX style tty control 33.6.1. Example 33.7. tty — Terminal control functions 33.8. pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities 33.9. fcntl — The fcntl() and ioctl() system calls 33.10. pipes — Interface to shell pipelines 33.10.1. Template Objects 33.11. resource — Resource usage information 33.11.1. Resource Limits 33.11.2. Resource Usage 33.12. nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages) 33.13. syslog — Unix syslog library routines 34. Undocumented Modules 34.1. Platform specific modules Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter 1. Extending Python with C or C++ 1.1. A Simple Example 1.2. Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions 1.3. Back to the Example 1.4. The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function 1.5. Compilation and Linkage 1.6. Calling Python Functions from C 1.7. Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions 1.8. Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions 1.9. Building Arbitrary Values 1.10. Reference Counts 1.10.1. Reference Counting in Python 1.10.2. Ownership Rules 1.10.3. Thin Ice 1.10.4. NULL Pointers 1.11. Writing Extensions in C++ 1.12. Providing a C API for an Extension Module 2. Defining New Types 2.1. The Basics 2.1.1. Adding data and methods to the Basic example 2.1.2. Providing finer control over data attributes 2.1.3. Supporting cyclic garbage collection 2.1.4. Subclassing other types 2.2. Type Methods 2.2.1. Finalization and De-allocation 2.2.2. Object Presentation 2.2.3. Attribute Management 2.2.3.1. Generic Attribute Management 2.2.3.2. Type-specific Attribute Management 2.2.4. Object Comparison 2.2.5. Abstract Protocol Support 2.2.6. Weak Reference Support 2.2.7. More Suggestions 3. Building C and C++ Extensions with distutils 3.1. Distributing your extension modules 4. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows 4.1. A Cookbook Approach 4.2. Differences Between Unix and Windows 4.3. Using DLLs in Practice 5. Embedding Python in Another Application 5.1. Very High Level Embedding 5.2. Beyond Very High Level Embedding: An overview 5.3. Pure Embedding 5.4. Extending Embedded Python 5.5. Embedding Python in C++ 5.6. Linking Requirements Python/C API Reference Manual Introduction Include Files Objects, Types and Reference Counts Reference Counts Reference Count Details Types Exceptions Embedding Python Debugging Builds The Very High Level Layer Reference Counting Exception Handling Exception Objects Standard Exceptions Utilities Operating System Utilities System Functions Process Control Importing Modules Data marshalling support Parsing arguments and building values String conversion and formatting Reflection Abstract Objects Layer Object Protocol Number Protocol Sequence Protocol Mapping Protocol Iterator Protocol Buffer Protocol Concrete Objects Layer Fundamental Objects Type Objects The None Object Numeric Objects Integer Objects Boolean Objects Floating Point Objects Complex Number Objects Complex Numbers as C Structures Complex Numbers as Python Objects Sequence Objects Bytes Objects Byte Array Objects Unicode Objects and Codecs Unicode Objects Built-in Codecs Methods and Slot Functions Buffer Objects Buffer related functions MemoryView objects Tuple Objects List Objects Mapping Objects Dictionary Objects Other Objects Set Objects Function Objects Instance Method Objects Method Objects File Objects Module Objects Initializing C modules Iterator Objects Descriptor Objects Slice Objects Weak Reference Objects Capsules CObjects Cell Objects Generator Objects DateTime Objects Initialization, Finalization, and Threads Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock Asynchronous Notifications Profiling and Tracing Advanced Debugger Support Memory Management Overview Memory Interface Examples Object Implementation Support Allocating Objects on the Heap Common Object Structures Type Objects Number Object Structures Mapping Object Structures Sequence Object Structures Buffer Object Structures Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection Distributing Python Modules 1. An Introduction to Distutils 1.1. Concepts & Terminology 1.2. A Simple Example 1.3. General Python terminology 1.4. Distutils-specific terminology 2. Writing the Setup Script 2.1. Listing whole packages 2.2. Listing individual modules 2.3. Describing extension modules 2.3.1. Extension names and packages 2.3.2. Extension source files 2.3.3. Preprocessor options 2.3.4. Library options 2.3.5. Other options 2.4. Relationships between Distributions and Packages 2.5. Installing Scripts 2.6. Installing Package Data 2.7. Installing Additional Files 2.8. Additional meta-data 2.9. Debugging the setup script 3. Writing the Setup Configuration File 4. Creating a Source Distribution 4.1. Specifying the files to distribute 4.2. Manifest-related options 5. Creating Built Distributions 5.1. Creating dumb built distributions 5.2. Creating RPM packages 5.3. Creating Windows Installers 5.4. Cross-compiling on Windows 5.4.1. The Postinstallation script 5.5. Vista User Access Control (UAC) 6. Registering with the Package Index 6.1. The .pypirc file 7. Uploading Packages to the Package Index 7.1. PyPI package display 8. Examples 8.1. Pure Python distribution (by module) 8.2. Pure Python distribution (by package) 8.3. Single extension module 8.4. Checking a package 9. Extending Distutils 9.1. Integrating new commands 9.2. Adding new distribution types 10. Command Reference 10.1. Installing modules: the install command family 10.1.1. install_data 10.1.2. install_scripts 10.2. Creating a source distribution: the sdist command 11. API Reference 11.1. distutils.core — Core Distutils functionality 11.2. distutils.ccompiler — CCompiler base class 11.3. distutils.unixccompiler — Unix C Compiler 11.4. distutils.msvccompiler — Microsoft Compiler 11.5. distutils.bcppcompiler — Borland Compiler 11.6. distutils.cygwincompiler — Cygwin Compiler 11.7. distutils.emxccompiler — OS/2 EMX Compiler 11.8. distutils.archive_util — Archiving utilities 11.9. distutils.dep_util — Dependency checking 11.10. distutils.dir_util — Directory tree operations 11.11. distutils.file_util — Single file operations 11.12. distutils.util — Miscellaneous other utility functions 11.13. distutils.dist — The Distribution class 11.14. distutils.extension — The Extension class 11.15. distutils.debug — Distutils debug mode 11.16. distutils.errors — Distutils exceptions 11.17. distutils.fancy_getopt — Wrapper around the standard getopt module 11.18. distutils.filelist — The FileList class 11.19. distutils.log — Simple PEP 282-style logging 11.20. distutils.spawn — Spawn a sub-process 11.21. distutils.sysconfig — System configuration information 11.22. distutils.text_file — The TextFile class 11.23. distutils.version — Version number classes 11.24. distutils.cmd — Abstract base class for Distutils commands 11.25. distutils.command — Individual Distutils commands 11.26. distutils.command.bdist — Build a binary installer 11.27. distutils.command.bdist_packager — Abstract base class for packagers 11.28. distutils.command.bdist_dumb — Build a “dumb” installer 11.29. distutils.command.bdist_msi — Build a Microsoft Installer binary package 11.30. distutils.command.bdist_rpm — Build a binary distribution as a Redhat RPM and SRPM 11.31. distutils.command.bdist_wininst — Build a Windows installer 11.32. distutils.command.sdist — Build a source distribution 11.33. distutils.command.build — Build all files of a package 11.34. distutils.command.build_clib — Build any C libraries in a package 11.35. distutils.command.build_ext — Build any extensions in a package 11.36. distutils.command.build_py — Build the .py/.pyc files of a package 11.37. distutils.command.build_scripts — Build the scripts of a package 11.38. distutils.command.clean — Clean a package build area 11.39. distutils.command.config — Perform package configuration 11.40. distutils.command.install — Install a package 11.41. distutils.command.install_data — Install data files from a package 11.42. distutils.command.install_headers — Install C/C++ header files from a package 11.43. distutils.command.install_lib — Install library files from a package 11.44. distutils.command.install_scripts — Install script files from a package 11.45. distutils.command.register — Register a module with the Python Package Index 11.46. distutils.command.check — Check the meta-data of a package 11.47. Creating a new Distutils command Installing Python Modules Introduction Best case: trivial installation The new standard: Distutils Standard Build and Install Platform variations Splitting the job up How building works How installation works Alternate Installation Alternate installation: the home scheme Alternate installation: Unix (the prefix scheme) Alternate installation: Windows (the prefix scheme) Custom Installation Modifying Python’s Search Path Distutils Configuration Files Location and names of config files Syntax of config files Building Extensions: Tips and Tricks Tweaking compiler/linker flags Using non-Microsoft compilers on Windows Borland/CodeGear C++ GNU C / Cygwin / MinGW Documenting Python 1. Introduction 2. Style Guide 3. reStructuredText Primer 3.1. Paragraphs 3.2. Inline markup 3.3. Lists and Quotes 3.4. Source Code 3.5. Hyperlinks 3.5.1. External links 3.5.2. Internal links 3.6. Sections 3.7. Explicit Markup 3.8. Directives 3.9. Footnotes 3.10. Comments 3.11. Source encoding 3.12. Gotchas 4. Additional Markup Constructs 4.1. Meta-information markup 4.2. Module-specific markup 4.3. Information units 4.4. Showing code examples 4.5. Inline markup 4.6. Cross-linking markup 4.7. Paragraph-level markup 4.8. Table-of-contents markup 4.9. Index-generating markup 4.10. Grammar production displays 4.11. Substitutions 5. Differences to the LaTeX markup 5.1. Inline markup 5.2. Information units 5.3. Structure Python HOWTOs Python Advocacy HOWTO Reasons to Use Python Programmability Prototyping Simplicity and Ease of Understanding Java Integration Arguments and Rebuttals Useful Resources Porting Extension Modules to 3.0 Conditional compilation Changes to Object APIs str/unicode Unification long/int Unification Module initialization and state Other options Curses Programming with Python What is curses? The Python curses module Starting and ending a curses application Windows and Pads Displaying Text Attributes and Color User Input For More Information Idioms and Anti-Idioms in Python Language Constructs You Should Not Use from module import * Inside Function Definitions At Module Level When It Is Just Fine from module import name1, name2 except: Exceptions Using the Batteries Using Backslash to Continue Statements Functional Programming HOWTO Introduction Formal provability Modularity Ease of debugging and testing Composability Iterators Data Types That Support Iterators Generator expressions and list comprehensions Generators Passing values into a generator Built-in functions The itertools module Creating new iterators Calling functions on elements Selecting elements Grouping elements The functools module The operator module The functional module Small functions and the lambda expression Revision History and Acknowledgements References General Python-specific Python documentation Regular Expression HOWTO Introduction Simple Patterns Matching Characters Repeating Things Using Regular Expressions Compiling Regular Expressions The Backslash Plague Performing Matches Module-Level Functions Compilation Flags More Pattern Power More Metacharacters Grouping Non-capturing and Named Groups Lookahead Assertions Modifying Strings Splitting Strings Search and Replace Common Problems Use String Methods match() versus search() Greedy versus Non-Greedy Not Using re.VERBOSE Feedback Socket Programming HOWTO Sockets History Creating a Socket IPC Using a Socket Binary Data Disconnecting When Sockets Die Non-blocking Sockets Performance Unicode HOWTO Introduction to Unicode History of Character Codes Definitions Encodings References Python’s Unicode Support The String Type Converting to Bytes Unicode Literals in Python Source Code Unicode Properties References Reading and Writing Unicode Data Unicode filenames Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs References Revision History and Acknowledgements HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package Introduction Fetching URLs Data Headers Handling Exceptions URLError HTTPError Error Codes Wrapping it Up Number 1 Number 2 info and geturl Openers and Handlers Basic Authentication Proxies Sockets and Layers Footnotes HOWTO Use Python in the web The low-level view Common Gateway Interface Simple script for testing CGI Setting up CGI on your own server Common problems with CGI scripts mod_python FastCGI and SCGI Setting up FastCGI mod_wsgi Step back: WSGI WSGI Servers Case study: MoinMoin Model-view-controller Ingredients for web sites Templates Data persistence Frameworks Some notable frameworks Django TurboGears Other notable frameworks Glossary About these documents Contributors to the Python Documentation Reporting Bugs in Python Copyright História e Licença História do software Termos e condições de acesso ou utilização Python Licenças e Agradecimentos para Software Incorporado Mersenne Twister Sockets Controle de exceção de ponto flutuante Serviços de socket assíncronos Gerenciamento de cookies Profiling Execução de rastreamento Funções UUencode e UUdecode XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue strtod e dtoa